Commercial Brands of Bleaching Solution & a Determination of the Best Buy Essay

Introduction : Sodium chlorate(I) forms the basis of most commercial bleaches. The amount present in bleaching solution can be determined by a volumetric technique. In this experiment, sodium chlorate(I) reacts with excess potassium iodide in the presence of acid to liberate. The iodine is titrated against standard sodium thiosulphate solution. Chemicals : Bleach solution , 0.1 M Na2S2O3 ,1 M H2SO4 , KI , Starch indicator Procedures : 1. Determine the total volume of bleach in the commercial bottles provided. Note the brand name, volume & price of each sample. 2. Pipette 25 cm3 bleach solution into a 250 cm3 volumetric flask. Make up to the mark & mix well. 3. Pipette 25 cm3 of this solution into a conical flask. Add 10 cm3 KI solution & 10 cm3 1 M sulphuric acid. 4. Titrate this mixture against the standard sodium thiosulphate solution provided. Add starch indicator when the solution become pale yellow. 5. Record your results and calculate the molarity of the orginal bleach solution. 6. Determine which bleach has the lowest price per mole of actual bleach. Results : Brand A = ___________KAO_____________ Brand B = _________Best Buy____________ Volume = ___________1.5L______________ Volume = ____________2L_______________ Price = _______$12.9 / Bottle____________ Price = ________$10.9 / Bottle____________ Mole = _________0.753 Mol_____________ Mole = ___________1.152 Mol ___________ $/mole = _______$17.13 / Mol ___________ $/mole = __________$9.46 / Mol__________ Best buy is ________ Best Buy___________ Titration of Brand A against the standard sodium thiosulphate solution Titration 1 2 3 4 Final Burette Reading (ml) 31.70 35.70 27.80 32.20 Initial Burette Reading (ml) 2.90 9.80 4.40 8.30 Volume of titrant (ml) 28.80 25.90 25.40 23.50 Mean volume of titrant (ml) = __(25.90+25.40+23.50)3 = 25.1 ml__ Calculation: The Result Of Brand A Sodium chlorate(I) reacts with excess potassium iodide in the Bleaching solution, which is a acid medium. Iodine solution produced. Following equation: 2H+-(aq) + OCl–(aq) + 2I–(aq) –> Cl–(aq) + I2-(aq) + H2O-(l) Secondly, the iodine solution is titrated with sodium thiosulphate solution Following equation: I2(aq) + 2 S2O32- (aq) –> S4O62- (aq) + 2 I-(aq) The Molarity of Na2S2O3 : = 0.1M Number of mole of S2O3- reacted with I2: : = Molarity X Volume = 0.1 X (25.11000) = 0.00251 mol The Mole ratio of Na2S2O3:: I2= 2:1 Number of moles of I2 reacted with S2O3- = (12) X 0.00251 mol = 0.001255 mol The Mole ratio of NaOCl: I2= 1:1 Number of moles of NaOCl used in the titration = I2 = 0.001255 mol Number of moles of NaOCl in the 250ml volumetic flask = 0.001255 mol X 10 = 0.01255 mol Number of moles in 1.5L bleach solution = 0.01255 mol 25 X 1500 = 0.753 mol Price of OCl- per mole in brand A = $12.9 0.753mol = $17.13 / mol Results : Titration of Brand B against the standard sodium thiosulphate solution Titration 1 2 3 4 Final Burette Reading (ml) 30.90 32.8 31.90 35.20 Initial Burette Reading (ml) 2.10 3.90 3.30 6.90 Volume of titrant (ml) 28.8 28.90 28.60 28.90 Mean volume of titrant (ml) = __(28.90+28.60+28.90)3 = 28.8 ml__ Calculation: The Result Of Brand B Sodium chlorate(I) reacts with excess potassium iodide in the Bleaching solution, which is a acid medium. Iodine solution produced. Following ionic equation: 2H+-(aq) + OCl–(aq) + 2I–(aq) –> Cl–(aq) + I2-(aq) + H2O-(l) Secondly, the iodine solution is titrated with sodium thiosulphate solution Following ionic equation: I2(aq) + 2 S2O32- (aq) –> S4O62- (aq) + 2 I-(aq) The Molarity of Na2S2O3 : = 0.1M Number of mole of S2O3- reacted with I2: : = Molarity X Volume = 0.1 X (28.81000)= 0.00288 mol The Mole ratio of Na2S2O3:: I2= 2:1 Number of moles of I2 reacted with S2O3- = (12) X 0.00288 mol = 0.00144 mol The Mole ratio of NaOCl: I2= 1:1 Number of moles of NaOCl used in the titration = I2 = 0.00144 mol Number of moles of NaOCl in the 250ml volumetic flask = 0.00144 mol X 10 = 0.0144 mol Number of moles in 2L bleach solution = 0.0144 mol 25 X 2000 = 1.152 mol Price of OCl- per mole in brand B = $10.9 1.152 mol = $9.46 / mol Questions : 1. Why must the KI be present in excess ? If less than the specified quantity of KI is added, what effect will this have on the results ? The bleach solution contain sodium chlorate(I),which have ions OCl-.We can prepare the iodine solution by adding the sodium chlorate(I) to potassium iodide in a acidic medium. At first, the sodium chlorate(I) Is the limiting agent. When we add the excess potassium iodide into the bleach solution. Not only it will not effect the result, but also the calculation can be more accurate. All the ions OCl- can be completely reacted. In addition, Iodine solution is only slightly soluble in water but it is very soluble in the solution, which contain I- ions. 2. What is the function of the sulphuric acid ? The function of sulphuric acid is provide a acidic medium containing excess iodide to ionizes the iodine solution to triiodide ions. We must know that the Brown colour of iodine solution is cause for the triiodide ions(I3-).This colour in observation of titration is very important. 3. Bleaching solutions may deteriorate for 2 reasons : (a) react with CO2 in the air according to the equation : 2 OCl- + CO2 –> CO32-+ H2 + Cl2 (b) what is the other reason ? It must be effected by light. It is because the The hypochlorite ions OCl-( will be decompose quickly under light Following equation:2NaOCl –>2NaCl + O2, .While losing some OCl- ions, the result in calculation will not be accurate 4. What should the starch indicator not be added too early ? The starch solution turns the iodine to blue black because of the formation of starch-iodine complex. Also, the complex is not reversible when the concentration of iodine is high. If we add the starch solution early, the attraction of starch molecules and iodine molecules will attract so strongly. Although we have add standard sodium thiosulphate solution, but we can not do completely finish the real result of titration and effecting the calculation. The above-mentioned tell us that the starch solution should be added when only a few of iodine solution left, near the end point of the titration.

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LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY CAPSTONE PROJECT REPORT TOPIC- ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF HONEY. PROJECT GUIDE- SUBMITTED BY- DR. AKSHAY GARG MOHIT KUMAR DEPT. OF BIOTECHNOLOGY REG. NO. – 10800037 ROLL NO- RB1R07B02 B. TECH BIOTECH. (8th sem. ) DATED- . 17-05-2012 CERTIFICATECertified that this project entitled â€Å"anti microbial activity of different types of honey † submitted by MOHIT KUMAR , students of biotechnology Department, Lovely Professioal University, Phagwara Punjab in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Bachelors of Technology (biotechnology) Degree of LPU, is a record of student’s own study carried under my supervision & guidance. This report has not been submitted to any other university or institution for the award of any degree.Date: 17/5/2012 Name of Project Guide Dr. Akshay Garg DECLARATION I, MOHIT KUMAR, student of B. Tech Biotechnology under Department of Biotechnology of Lovely Professional Unive rersity, Punjab, hereby declare that all the information furnished in this dissertation / capstone project report is based on my own intensive research and is genuine. This dissertation / report does not, to the best of my knowledge, contain part of my work which has been submitted for the award of my degree either of this niversity or any other university without proper citation. Date – 17/5/2012 Investigator- MOHIT KUMAR Regd. No. 10800037 Acknowledgement Any attempt at any level can't be satisfactorily completed without the support and guidance of learned people in my capstone projectâ€Å"Antimicrobial activity of different types of honey†.I would like to express my immense gratitude to my guide Dr. Akshay Garg for his constant support and motivation that has encouraged me to come up with this project. I also would like to thanks my group member who helped me in my project. MOHIT KUMAR ABSTRACT Honey is a traditional topical treatment for infected wounds. It can be effective on antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Several local brands of honey(Dabur) collected from different sources is used in this study. Also the honey is collected from various apiaries from Pathankot(Punjab) and Saharanpur (Up).The bacterial culture were taken from the laboratory of the Lovely professional University and was revived in nutrient broth media and then sub-cultured in nutrient agar media. The method used to test this antibiotic sensitivity of honey was done with the help of Kirby Bauer method . Marked variations were observed in the antibacterial activity of these honey samples. Bacterial species used were Bacillus subtilis ,E. coli. , S. aureus and Burkholderia spp. The zone of inhibition produced against different bacteria using honey of different concentration are as follows: E. oli (pathankot sample): 100% = 2. 6cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 7cm,and 25%= 1. 2cm; E. coli (dabur sample): 100% = 2. 2cm, 75%= 1. 6cm, 50%= 1. 3cm, and 25%= 1. 1cm; E. coli (sahar anpur sample): 100% = 2. 8cm, 75%= 2. 4cm, 50%= 2. 2cm, and 25%= 1. 7cm; B. subtilis (pathankot): 100% = 3. 0cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 7cm, and 25%= 2. 5cm; B. subtilis (dabur): 100% = 2. 7cm, 75%= 2. 5cm, 50%= 2. 4cm, and 25%= 2. 2cm; B. subtilis (saharanpur):100% = 3. 2cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 3cm, and 25%= 1. 5cm; Burkholderia spp. (pathankot): 100% = 2. 1cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 6cm, and 25%= 1. 4cm; Burkholderia spp. dabur): 100% = 2. 4cm, 75%= 1. 7cm, 50%= 1. 5cm, and 25%=1. 2cm; Burkholderia spp. (saharanpur):100% = 2. 5cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 7cm, and 25%=1. 4cm; S. aureus (pathankot):100%=2. 1cm, 75%= 1. 7cm, 50%= 1. 4cm, and 25%=1. 2cm; S. aureus (dabur):100% =3. 0cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 2cm, and 25%=1. 8cm; S. aureus (saharanpur): 100% = 2. 9cm, 75%= 2. 5cm, 50%= 2. 0cm, and 25%=1. 6cm; Zones of inhibition of different treatment groups were measured by agar-well-diffusion assay and compared with control. The comparison of honey sample with distilled water control had pro ved it significant.CONTENTS PAGE 1. INTRODUCTION 7 1. 1) Honey as antibacterial agent 7 1. OBJECTIVE 9 2. LITERATURE REVIEWS 10 3. 1 TYPES OF HONEY 10 3. 2 COMPONENTS OF HONEY 11 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 15 4. MATERIAL 15 4. 2 METHOD 16 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 19 5. REFERENCES 32 1. ) INTRODUCTION Honey is a sweet food made by bees using nectar from flowers. The Honey is a sweet, viscous fluid produced by bees from the collection of nectar, primarily from flowers. It is considered to be a natural syrup. The Nectar is gathered by the bees and is slowly transformed into honey, through a long rocess involving the addition of enzymes and the gradual reduction of moisture. Honey is a rich source of carbohydrates mainly Fructose and Glucose. The chemical composition of honey varies depending on the plant source, season and production methods. Therefore the Colour, Concentration and Compounds vary depending on the floral sources. Other compounds which can be found in Honey include Pr oteins and acids such as Gluconic Acid (C6H11O7, also known as 2,3,4,5,6- pentahydroxyhexanoic Acid), Minerals and Anti-Oxidants such as Hydrogen Peroxide (H202) and Vitamins (B6 and B12), (BD.Yates et. al. 1996). Honey has a low pH and a low moisture content, which is usually on average about 17 percent. The Gluconic Acid in honey is produced when bees secrete Glucose Oxidase, while processing the nectar, this give honey a low pH. There are many varieties of honey from around the world which come in three main types which are liquid, whipped and comb. Several local brands of honey(Dabur) collected from different sources is used in this study. Also the honey is collected from various apiaries from Pathankot(Punjab) and Saharanpur (Up) .Each of these honey’s were chosen because they are organic and readily available in health food stores 1. 1) The Antibacterial Effects of Honey The honeys are shown to have antibacterial properties, in particular Manuka honey. Manuka Honey has had extensive research done on it. It has been shown in many studies that Manuka Honey has antimicrobial effects (Barret J. , et. al, 2005; Coumbes A. L. , et. al. 2004; Mundo, M A. 2004). The Mechanism of Antibacterial Properties Honey has many natural properties which enable it to inhibit bacteria.These properties include, a low pH which is in the range of pH 3. 2 to 4. 5, approximately 3. 9 which is due to its content of acidic compounds mainly Gluconic acid as stated above. A low pH is inhibitory to most bacteria. Since most bacteria live in environments around pH 7, the pH of honey could inhibit the bacteria (Barrett, J et. al. al 2005). This is because pH affects the way large proteins such as enzymes work. Which causes the shape of enzymes to change, which then alters the overall charge, this causes the protein to denature.Honey contains small amounts of Hydrogen peroxide (H202) this varies depending on the honey, it is produced as a result of the enzyme glucose oxidase activ ity in producing Gluconic acid (Mundo, MA. et. al. 2004). C6H12O6 + H2O + O2 > C6H12O7 + H2O2 (glucose oxidase reaction) When honey is used topically (as, for example, a wound dressing), hydrogen peroxide is produced by dilution of the honey with body fluids. As a result, hydrogen peroxide is released slowly and acts as an antiseptic. Hydrogen peroxide is a powerful oxidising agent (Free Radical) which has the ability to damage cells.In an aqueous solution hydrogen peroxide acts like an acid and can oxidise a variety of compounds, by accepting free unpaired electrons. This allows the formation of other free radicals, which then causes a cascade effect. Therefore altering biological structures and therefore damaging cells. Honey is primarily a saturated mixture of two monosaccharide, with a low water activity; most of the water molecules are associated with the sugars and few remain available for microorganisms, so it is a poor environment for their growth.If water is mixed with hone y, it loses its low water activity, and therefore no longer possesses this antimicrobial property. Honey consists of various constituents such as water, carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, amino acid, energy and minerals. Besides the major ones, there must also be several minor constituents in honey, which may be playing a key role in determining the antimicrobial behaviour of honey. In the past, antimicrobial activity of honey had been reported only by using aqueous solution of honey.It is said that honey possesses antibacterial property but it is not clear whether it is the bulk honey or some fraction of it. The antibacterial properties of honey speed up the growth of new tissue to heal the wound. The bactericidal effect of honey is reported to be dependent on concentration of honey used and the nature of the bacteria Considering the fact that their might be some specific constituents which may be contributing to the antimicrobial behaviour, it was decided to carryout the studies u sing different solvents.The present study therefore deals with the constituents in the different solvents followed by evaluation of extract for their antimicrobial behaviour against certain species of bacteria. 2) OBJECTIVE Based on the above facts, the present study was defined with following objective: 1) To check the antibacterial effect of different honeys on. a. Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus, b. Gram-negative Escherichia coli, c. Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis, and d. Gram- negative Burkholderia capicium 2) To check the effect of honey on bacterial strains using different-different dilutions. . 100% honey sample b. 75% honey sample c. 50% honey sample d. 25% honey sample 3) To compare the effect of honey and control (Distilled water) on a. Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus, b. Gram-negative Escherichia coli, c. Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis, and d. Gram- negative Burkholderia capicium 3) LITERATURE REVIEWS Honey has been used with medicinal purposes since ancient tim es and there are reports of its topic use by Ayurvedic medicine, dating back to 2500 b. c. Hippocrates prescribed the use of honey for several indications, including treatment of wounds and gastritis.Its healing properties are mentioned in the Koran and in Bible. Honey is a part of traditional medicine for centuries. The antimicrobial activity of honey is due primarily to hydrogen peroxide produced enzymatically. However, in undiluted honey the acidity is also a significant antimicrobial factor. The pH, ranging from 3. 2 to 4. 5, is low enough to inhibit the development of pathogens, whose optimal pH range situates between 7. 2 and 7. 4. When applied to affected areas of tissue, acidity, osmotic effect and phytochemical factors decrease with dilution; however, the activity of hydrogen peroxide increases from 2. to 50 times. On these values, peroxide acts as an antiseptic, without causing cell damage. The composition of sugars in honeys, from different floral origins, inhibits the de velopment of various intestinal bacteria. All chemical and physical factors make the therapeutic properties of honey unique: fast decline of infections and healing of wounds, quick inflammation recovery, minimizing of wounds, stimulation of angiogenesis, as well as the development of epithelial and granular tissues. Honey to be used with topical medicinal purpose, certain requirements are needed, like being free f herbicides, pesticides, heavy metals and radioactive elements and sterilized to prevent secondary infections. 3. 1) TYPES OF HONEY – ON BASIS OF FLORAL SOURCE- Blended- Most commercially available honey is blended, meaning it is a mixture of two or more honeys differing in floral source, color, flavor, density or geographic origin. Polyfloral – Polyfloral honey, also known as wildflower honey, is derived from the nectar of many types of flowers. The taste may vary from year to year, and the aroma and the flavor can be more or less intense, depending on which bloomings are prevalent.Monofloral- Monofloral honey is made primarily from the nectar of one type of flower. Different monofloral honeys have a distinctive flavor and color because of differences between their principal nectar sources. To produce monofloral honey, beekeepers keep beehives in an area where the bees have access to only one type of flower. Honeydew honey- Instead of taking nectar, bees can take honeydew, the sweet secretions of aphids or other plant sap-sucking insects. Honeydew honey is very dark brown in color, with a rich fragrance of stewed fruit or fig jam, and is not sweet like nectar honeys. . 2) COMPOSITION OF HONEY Carbohydrates Unsurprisingly, these comprise the major portion of honey – about 82%. The carbohydrates present are the monosaccharide fructose (38. 2%) and glucose (31%); and disaccharides (~9%) sucrose, maltose, isomaltose, maltulose, turanose and kojibiose. There are also some oligosaccharides present (4. 2%), including erlose, theanderose and panose, formed from incomplete breakdown of the higher saccharides present in nectar and honeydew. Proteins and Amino Acids.Honey contains a number of enzymes, including invertase, which converts sucrose to glucose and fructose; amylase, which breaks starch down into smaller units; glucose oxidase, which converts glucose to gluconolactone, which in turn yields gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide; catalase, which breaks down the peroxide formed by glucose oxidase to water and oxygen; and acid phosphorylase, which removes inorganic phosphate from organic phosphates. Honey also contains eighteen free amino acids, of which the most abundant is proline. Vitamins, Minerals and AntioxidantsHoney contains trace amounts of the B vitamins riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, pantothenic acid and vitamin B6. It also contains ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and the minerals calcium, iron, zinc, potassium, phosphorous, magnesium, selenium, chromium and manganese. The main group of antioxidants in hon ey are the flavonoids, of which one, pinocembrin, is unique to honey and bee propolis. Ascorbic acid, catalase and selenium are also antioxidants. Generally speaking, the darker the honey, the greater its antioxidising properties. Other compoundsHoney also contains organic acids such as acetic, butanoic, formic, citric, succinic, lactic, malic, pyroglutamic and gluconic acids, and a number of aromatic acids. The main acid present is gluconic acid, formed in the breakdown of glucose by glucose oxidase. Honey also contains hydroxymethylfurfural, a natural product of the breakdown of simple sugars below pH 5. According to studies done by Patricia E. Lusby et al Twelve of the 13 bacteria were inhibited by all honeys used in this study with only Serratia marcescens and the yeast Candida albicans not inhibited by the honeys.Little or no antibacterial activity was seen at honey concentrations 1%, with minimal inhibition at 5%. No honey was able to produce complete inhibition of bacterial g rowth. Although Medi honey and manuka had the overall best activity, the locally produced honeys had equivalent inhibitory activity for some, but not all, bacteria. He then postulated that honeys other than those commercially available as antibacterial honeys can have equivalent antibacterial activity. These newly identified antibacterial honeys may prove to be a valuable source of future therapeutic honeys. According to Peter C.Molan (2001), honey may be the â€Å"natural cure† for most bacterial infections that could replace man-made antibiotics. Researchers say that an enzyme in the honey turns into a tiny  amount hydrogen peroxide when combined with bodily fluids killing nearby bacteria. Honey also causes an increase in lymphocyte and  phagocyte activity (Cooper et al. , 2011). The honeys are shown to have antibacterial properties, in particular Manuka honey. Manuka Honey has had extensive research done on it. It has been shown in many studies that Manuka Honey has an timicrobial effects (Barret J. , et. al, 2005; Coumbes A. L. , et. al. 2004; Mundo, MA. 2004).In this study the antibacterial activity of the five honeys were compared, the Manuka honey was used as a positive control. The nonperoxide antibiotic activity is due to methylglyoxal (MGO) and an unidentified synergistic component. Most honeys contain very low levels of MGO, but manuka honey contains very high levels. The presence of the synergist in manuka honey more than doubles MGO antibacterial activity. In vitro antibacterial activity of raw and commercially available honey was tested against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella spp. nd Salmonella spp. ). Both types of honey showed antibacterial activity against test organisms with the zone of inhibition ranging from 8. 13 to 30. 85 mm, while E. coli, S. aureus, and Shigella spp. showed sensibility towards both types of Honey. Both types of honey showed no effects on Salmonella spp. The potency of honey at 100%concentration was found to be higher than all other concentrations tested. However, no effect was observed at concentration of 6. 25% v/v honey in the case of both samples(Patricia E. Lusby 2004).To study the antimicrobial activity of honey, 60 samples of various botanical origin were evaluated antimicrobial activities against 16 clinical pathogens and their respective reference strains. The bioassay applied for determining the antimicrobial effect employs the well-agar diffusion method and the estimation of minimum active dilution which produces a 1 mm diameter inhibition zone. Streptococcus pyogenes,Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis were proven to be up to 60% more resistant than their equal reference strains thus emphasizing the variability in the antibacterial effect of honey and the need for further research (C.Voidarou 2010). Natural products, either as pure compounds or as standardized plant extracts, provid e unlimited opportunities for new drugs because of the ready availability of chemical diversity (Cos et al. , 2006). Honey and lemon-honey are traditional remedies in the Middle East and China and for many centuries and have been used in the treatment and prevention of the common cold and various upper respiratory tract infections (Molan, 1992; Zulma ; Lulat, 1989). Antibacterial activity of the honeys was assayed using standard well diffusion methods. oncluded that the sandal wood from different sources and mixture of of – and -santanols were highly effective against gram negative bacteria including Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae and as well as yeast Candida albicans. The present work gives strong evidence of antibacterial activities of honey, sandal oil and black pepper (Sheikh Ahmad 2002). In general, all types of honey have high sugar content as well as low water content and acidity, which prevent microbial growth.Osmotic effect, effect of pH and hydrogen peroxide are represented as an â€Å"inhibition† factor in honey (Postmes et al. , 1993). Most types of honey generate hydrogen peroxide when diluted because of the activation of the enzyme glucose oxidase, which oxidizes glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide (Schepartz and Subers, 1964). Hydrogen peroxide is the major contributor to the antimicrobial activity of honey,and the different concentrations of this compound indifferent honeys result in their variable antimicrobial effects (Molan, 1992).Moreover, non peroxide factors also play critical role. The content of non peroxide factors are related to the floral source and sometimes account for the major part of the antibacterial activity in honey(Molan and Russell, 1988). Forty samples of different honey types (Acacia, Ziziphus , Brassica and Citrus) were collected from different areas of Pakistan and analyzed for moisture, pH, total acidity, ash, electrical conductivity, hydroxyl methyl furfural (HMF), sucrose, total sugars, invert sugar, protein, proline contents as well as macro and micro elements.The variation in composition of honey samples was observed due to different types of flora. Likewise, a significant level (P ; 0. 05) of ash, electric conductivity, sucrose, total sugar as well as macro and micro elements was also found in these honey types. Different formulations of honey has significantly inhibited growth of pathogenic microorganisms, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger when compared to control group, which is an evidence that honey is a therapeutic agent being used since ancient time throughout the world. Feng et. al. 1994) The discrepancy in the observed antibacterial activity can be due to several reasons. One possibility might be related to the differences in susceptibility of each species of microorganism to the antibacterial activity of honey used. Similar observations are reported by others (Nzeako and Hamdi 2000; Ceyhan and Ugur 2001; Taormina et al. 2001). As reported by others (Melissa et al. 2004) dilution of honey enhances hydrogen peroxide mediated antibacterial activity may explain some of the discrepancies of observed with the antibacterial activity of these honey.The presence of unstable putative agents and/or thermolabile antibacterial agent(s) could also be inactivated during the experimental procedure and thus may be considered as possible explanation of the observed insensitivity of some honey samples found in the preliminary study. 4. ) MATERIALS AND METHOD 4. 1) Materials Several local brands of honey and Dabur honey collected from different sources is used in this study. Also the honey is collected from various apiaries from- Pathankot(Punjab) and Saharanpur (Up). In the antibacterial study, several bacterial species known to be pathogenic to human such as E. oli. , S. aureus and Burkholderia capicium and Bacillus subtilis was used. These strains were obtained from biote chnology lab. in accordance to given requirement. Glass wares used:- Conical flask (500 milliliter), Conical flask (100 milliliter), Petri plates, glass rod, test tubes spreader, glass beakers, Glass slides and cover slip, Plastic wares used:- Beakers, Conical flask (500 milliliter), Conical flask (100 milliliter), dropper, appendrof tubes (2ml), auto pipette tips (10? l, 100? l, and 1000? l) Instruments used:- Hot air oven, Autoclave machine, Laminar air flow hood, Incubator, Microwave ovenOther material used:- Sprit lamp, cork borer,test tube stand, auto pipette (10? l, 100? l, and 1000? l), parafilm wax,,filter paper Chemicals used:- Nutrient agar, nutrient broth, Mueller Hinton agar, 70% Methanol, 100% methanol, ethyl alcohol ,sodium chloride. 4. 2) Methods Physicochemical study: Appearance of different honeys was observed. pH is determined using conventional procedure like using ph scale. Antibacterial study: Antibacterial study was carried out in steps. In the first step, an i n vitro screening will be carried out using either disc diffusion or well diffusion method.Well diffusion was carried out using plate diffusion, which I preferred. Preparation of test materials: Test materials will be prepared by diluting each honey at different dilutions, 25 ? l/100 ? l, 50 ? l/100 ? l, 75 ? l/100 ? l and one with no dilution. Moreover, net honey was also used as test material. All dilutions were carried out with double distilled and deionised sterilized water. 3. 2. 1) Source of bacterial strains The E. coli. , S. aureus, Burkholderia capicium and Bacillus subtilis were revived from the stock available in the various Biotechnology laboratories of Lovely Professional University, Phagwara (Punjab), India.Sub-culturing of bacterial strains in nutrient broth:- 100ml nutrient broth was prepared and ten test tubes were taken, autoclaved, and after this the Bacterial strains was inoculated in the nutrient broth in different test tubes and then incubated for 24 hours in i ncubator . Sub-culturing of the bacterial strains on solid media:- For All Bacterial strains:- 5. 6g of Nutrient agar was added to the 200ml of purified water. Then solution was heated and boiled for 1 minute to completely dissolve the powder. Then media was autoclaved.Then media(10-15 ml) was poured in Petri plates. Then Bacterial strains were added to media. Then Petri plate were kept in incubator for 18-48 hours at 37 degree C. Saline preparation : Take . 58g of Nacl and dissolve it to 10ml of distled water and make saline before 15 min of spreading and take the colonies from the nutrient agar plates and mix properly in the saline. Nutrient agar medium for antimicrobial testing: 7g of nutrient agar medium was added to the 250 ml of distilled water and heated for 1 minute to complete dissolve medium then autoclaved .After that pouring the petriplates and left it 20 minute for solidify medium and make wells , after solidify put the different Honeys in the wells and kept it to incub ate for 18-48 hours at 37C. Testing of antibacterial activity using agar well diffusion method: The bacterial strains were inoculated into 10 ml of sterile nutrient broth, and incubated at 37  °C for 18 h. Each culture was then spreaded on the surface of sterile nutrient agar plate and also pour-plated in nutrient agar media to perform the test in triplet, one with the control and the other two ith the test sample. Making the wells With the help of a cork borer make wells in the agar carefully without tearing the gel. In two agar plate of all four sets, four wells were prepared with the help of sterilized cork borer. Then with the hep of micropipette put 100 micro litre of honey sample into the wellIn the wells of two plates of each set, samples of following concentrations: (1) 100% sterile Honey(2) 75% sterile Honey(3) 50% sterile Honey and (4) 25% sterile Honey; were added by using micropipette. Also in the a well water was added as negative control.Then with the help of micropi pette put 100 micro litre of honey sample into the well Replace the lid of the plate between putting sample into wells to minimize exposure to air-borne contaminants. Cover the lid tightly with paraffin tape to avoid contamination. Incubation of the plates . A temperature range of 35 °C  ± 2 °C is required for 24-48 hours. Do not incubate plates in carbon dioxide  as this will decrease the pH of the agar and result in errors due to incorrect pH of the media. Measuring zone of inhibition 1.Following incubation, measure the zone sizes  to the nearest millimeter  using a ruler or caliper; include the diameter of the well in the measurement . 2. All measurements were made with the unaided eye while viewing the back of the petri dish. Hold the plate a few inches above a black, nonreflecting surface illuminated with reflected light . 3. Record the zone size on the recording sheet. Figure1: Testing of antibacterial activity using agar well diffusion method 4. )RESULTS Sub-cultu ring of bacterial strains in nutrient broth:- Figure2: Culture E. coli. , S. ureus and Burkholderia capicium and Bacillus subtilis in Nutrient broth media. Sub-culturing of the bacterial strains on solid media:- Fig. –3 E. coli subcultured on nutrient agar Fig. – 4 B. Subtilis subcultured on nutrient agar Testing of antibacterial activity using agar well diffusion method: Fig 5 : No antibacterial activity seen as no honey is poured (taken as negative control) in which E. coli is grown Fig 6 : No antibacterial activity seen as no honey is poured (taken as negative control) in which Bacillus subtilis is grown ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF VARIOUS HONEY’S AGAINST E. coliFIG. 7 – ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY(pathankot sample) IN E. coli: 100% = 2. 6cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 7cm,and 25%= 1. 2cm FIG. 8– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY (dabur sample) IN E. coli : 100% = 2. 2cm, 75%= 1. 6cm, 50%= 1. 3cm, and 25%= 1. 1cm FI G. 9– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY (saharanpur sample) IN E. coli: 100% = 2. 8cm, 75%= 2. 4cm, 50%= 2. 2cm, and 25%= 1. 7cm; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF VARIOUS HONEY’S AGAINST B. subtilis FIG. 10– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY IN B. subtilis (pathankot sample): 100% = 3. cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 7cm, and 25%= 2. 5cm FIG. 11– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY in B. subtilis (dabur sample): 100% = 2. 7cm, 75%= 2. 5cm, 50%= 2. 4cm, and 25%= 2. 2cm; FIG. 12– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY in B. subtilis (saharanpur):100% = 3. 2cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 3cm, and 25%= 1. 5cm ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF VARIOUS HONEY’S AGAINST Burkholderia capacium FIG. 13– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY in Burkholderia capacium (pathankot sample): 100% = 2. 1cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 6cm, and 25%= 1. 4cm; FIG. 4– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY Burkholderia capacium (dabur): 100% = 2. 4cm, 75%= 1. 7cm, 50%= 1. 5cm, and 25%=1. 2cm FIG. 15– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY Burkholderia capacium (saharanpur):100% = 2. 5cm, 75%= 1. 9cm, 50%= 1. 7cm, and 25%=1. 4cm; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF VARIOUS HONEY’S AGAINST S. Aureus FIG. 16– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY S. aureus (pathankot):100%=2. 1cm, 75%= 1. 7cm, 50%= 1. 4cm, and 25%=1. 2cm FIG. 17– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY S. aureus (dabur):100% =3. 0cm, 75%= 2. 7cm, 50%= 2. 2cm, and 25%=1. cm FIG. 18– ZONES OF INHIBITION BY VARIOUS DILUTIONS OF HONEY IN S. aureus (saharanpur): 100% = 2. 9cm, 75%= 2. 5cm, 50%= 2. 0cm, and 25%=1. 6cm Appearance Appearance of each of honey brand was examined and it was observed that honey were brown to dark brown in color, whereas other honey were golden yellow in color. Dabur honey- golden colour,transparent Pathankot sample – golden colour wit h sufficient transparency Saharanpur sample – dark yellow colour with zero transparency The transparency is due to processing of honey,while less transparent samples are unprocessed and taken directly from bee hive.Table 1- Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition by different concentration of Pathankot honey sample on different Bacterial strains. Bacterial strains| Zone of Inhibition (in cm)| | Control(sterile DistilledWater)| 100%Honey sample| 75%Honey sample| 50%Honey sample| 25%Honey sample| E. coli. | 0. 0| 2. 6| 1. 9| 1. 7| 1. 2| Bacillus subtilis| 0. 0| 3. 0| 2. 7| 2. 7| 2. 5| S. aureus| 0. 0| 2. 1| 1. 7| 1. 4| 1. 2| Burkholderia capicium| 0. 0| 2. 1| 1. 9| 1. 5| 1. 4| Table2- Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition by different concentration of dabur honey sample on different Bacterial strains.Bacterial strains| Zone of Inhibition (in cm) | | Control(sterile DistilledWater)| 100%Honey sample| 75%Honey sample| 50%Honey sample| 25%Honey sample| E. coli. | 0. 0| 2. 2| 1. 6| 1. 3| 1 . 1| Bacillus subtilis| 0. 0| 2. 7| 2. 5| 2. 4| 2. 2| S. aureus| 0. 0| 3. 0| 2. 7| 2. 2| 1. 8| Burkholderia capicium| 0. 0| 2. 4| 1. 7| 1. 5| 1. 2| Table 1- Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition by different concentration of Saharanpur honey sample on different Bacterial strains. Bacterial strains| Zone of Inhibition (in cm)| | Control(sterile DistilledWater)| 100%Honey sample| 75%Honey sample| 50%Honey sample| 25%Honey sample| E. oli. | 0. 0| 2. 8| 2. 4| 2. 3| 1. 7| Bacillus subtilis| 0. 0| 3. 2| 2. 7| 2. 3| 1. 5| S. aureus| 0. 0| 2. 9| 2. 5| 2. 0| 1. 6| Burkholderia capicium| 0. 0| 2. 5| 1. 9| 1. 7| 1. 4| In the preliminary screening process was observed that some honey brands have more while some other have less antibacterial activity. Some honey showed antibacterial effect against E. Coli and some showed strongest activity against Bacillus subtilis ,S. aureus and Burkholderia capicium. Clear zones of inhibition were produced by concentrated without dilution.Through the analysis of average values of the diameters of each honey, it is possible to infer a possible pattern in which commercial honeys, such as DABUR honey, have a greater average diameter while the homemade honeys from different regions, have a lower average diameter even at less concentrations, but the best antimicrobial activity was shown by Saharanpur honey sample with was collected directly from the apiary without any processing and it showed clear and large inhibition zones for all bacterial strains which were used for this test.Though after the dilutions were made, the low concentrated samples of Saharanpur honey resulted in rather poor antimicrobial activity. The wells in which water was loaded shoed absolutely no antimicrobial activity which was used as negative control. The results also showed that lower concentration of honey made through dilution shows less antimicrobial activity than concentrated ones. Thus honey are definitely effective against the bacterial strains at all concentration s. 6) REFERENCES Bibi S, Husain SZ, Malik RN (2008). Pollen analysis and heavy metals detection in honey samples from seven selected countries. Pak. J. Bot. 40(2): 507-516 * Cooper R. A. , Molan P. C. , Harding K. G. (1999) Antibacterial activity of honey against strains of Staphylococcus aureus from infected wounds, J. R. Soc. Med. 92, 283–285. * Cooper R. How does honey heal wounds? In: Munn P, Jones R,editors. Honey and Healing. UK: International Bee Research Association; 2001. * de Jong H. J. 1999) The Land of Corn and Honey:The keeping of stingless bees (meliponiculture) in the ethno-ecological environment of Yucatan (Mexico) and El Salvador, Utrecht UniversityPress, Netherlands, 423 p. * Kamal A, Raza A, Rashid N, Hammed TG, Lami M, Gureshin MA,Nasim K (2002). Comparative study of Honey collected from flora of Pakistan. On Line J. Biol. Sci. 23(9): 626-627. * Khalil MI, Shahjahan M, Absar N (2006). Glycemic Response and Lycemic Index of Bangladeshi Honey in Type 2 Diabe tic Patients. Malaysian. J. Pharm. Sci. 4(1): 13–19. * Lusby PE, Coombes AL, Wilkinson JM.Bactericidal activity of different honeys against pathogenic bacteria. Arch Med Res 2005; 36: 464-467 * Molan P. C. (1997) The antibacterial activity of honey. The nature of the antibacterial activity,Bee World 73, 5–28. * Mundo MA, Padilla-Zakour OI, Worobo RW. Growth inhibition of foodborne pathogens and food spoilage organisms by select raw honeys. Int J Food Microbiol 2004; 97: 1-8. * Tumin N, Halim NA, Shahjahan M, Noor Izani NJ, Sattar MA,Khan AH, et al. Antibacterial activity of local Malaysian honey. Malaysian J Pharma Sci 2005; 3: 1-10.

All what you need to know about Down syndrome

All what you need to know about Down syndrome Down syndrome (also known as trisomy 21) is a genetic disorder in which a person is born with an extra copy of their 21st chromosome. This disorder causes the patient to go through physical development delays, mental disabilities and a variety of distinguishable facial features. The possibility of being affected by down syndrome occurs by chance, the parents of the infected persons are genetically normal. This disability is permanent, and it usually shortens life expectancy. Although the disease has no known cure, people infected with down syndrome can still live very healthy and fulfilling lives. Medical advances have created support for people and their families that have been affected by down syndrome, providing opportunities to help prevail over the challenges of this disorder. In a normal cell, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, making it a total of 46. 23 of the chromosomes come from the mother’s egg and the other 23 comes from the father’s sperm. The XY chromosome includes the Y chromosome found in the sperm and the X chromosome found in the egg. In Down syndrome, there are three copies of chromosome 21 instead of two, this is called a chromosomal abnormality. The additional chromosome is either as a whole (trisomy 21) or parts of it (translocations). The effects of Down syndrome are different from person to person depending on how long the extra copy, the infected genetic background, and random possibilities. Down syndrome can affect all humans and similar effects have been found in other species (e.g chimpanzees and mice). Scientists have created transgenic mice with the human chromosome 21 and their own chromosomes. There are three chromosomal patterns that result in Down syndrome: trisomy 21, translocation and mosaicism. Trisomy 21 also known as nondisjunction is when a baby has 21 chromosomes instead of two. When a pair of 21 chromosomes fails to separate properly either in the egg or sperm. The extra chromosomes go on to be replicated into the cell in everybody. 95% of people with Down syndrome have trisomy 21. Translocation occurs in only 3% to 4% of all cases. In translocation, a part of chromosome 21 breaks off during cell division then attaches itself to another chromosome. The extra piece of the 21st chromosome causes the characteristics of down syndrome, translocation and may show that the infected person’s parents are carrying chromosomal material that is arranged in an unusual manner, genetic counselling can be sought to ascertain more information when these circumstances occur. Mosaicism is when disjunction of chromosome 21 takes place in one of the cell divisions after fertilization. After this happens there is a mixture of two types of cells, some contain 46 chromosomes and others 47. The cell that contains 47 chromosomes has an extra 21st chromosome. This type of Down syndrome only occurs in 1% to 2% of all cases of Down syndrome. There is a slight difference between trisomy 21 and Down syndrome. Nondisjunction is when the homologous chromosomes don’t separate properly during cell division. There are three types of nondisjunction, when the sister chromatids don’t separate during mitosis, when the sister chromatids don’t separate during meiosis II and when the homologous chromosomes don’t separate during meiosis I. Nondisjunction causes the daughter cells to have abnormal chromosome numbers. While trisomy 21 is when there is an extra copy of the chromosome. The average age that people with down syndrome live is increasing from 10 years in 2010 to 60 years now. However, their survivorship is determined by some heart problems by some factors; about 12% die in their first year, 60% of those with cognitive heart problems live to 10 years old and 50% live to 30 years old. 85% of those with no heart problems live to 10 years old and 80% live to 30 years old. Only 10% lives to 70 years of age. Down syndrome cannot be cured. During pregnancy, if the pregnant woman goes through prenatal scanning and the baby is found to have down syndrome 95% of those pregnancies are terminated. 20% to 50% of individuals with Down syndrome have problems of the thyroid gland, low thyroid is the most common form, occurring in half of all infected persons. These problems can be due to a poorly or totally non-functioning thyroid at birth also known as congenital hypothyroidism which happens very rarely or develops later due to an attack on the thyroid by the immune system. The rate of heart diseases in newborns with down syndrome is around 40 %, out of all the diseases only about 80%have a ventricular septal defect or atrioventricular septal defect (this one is more common). The mitral valve problems become common as people grow even in the people without heart problems at birth. People with Down syndrome have a lower risk of their arteries being hardened. Other problems that may include the art eries are tetralogy of Fallot and patent ductus arteriosus. The risk of having cancer in infected persons is not changed but the risk of leukaemia and testicular cancer is increased and risk of solid cancers is reduced. Solid cancers are less common because of the increased expression of tumour suppressor genes that are in the chromosome 21. Cancers of the blood are 10 times more common in children than with down syndrome. Specifically, acute lymphoblastic leukaemia is about 20 times more common and the megakaryoblastic form of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia is 500 times more popular. Transient myeloproliferative disease is a disorder of blood cell production that does not happen outside of Down syndrome, it affects about 7% of newly born babies. The disorder is not serious but can be sometimes can be deadly. Most times it is resolved without treatment but, those that have it are at risk of developing acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. The hypothalamic dysfunction is the primary cause of GH deficiency and growth retardation, although there has been minor research on how down syndrome affects our systems (excretory, nervous) there hasn’t been any major research with trustworthy results. People with Down’s syndrome usually tend to develop hypothyroidism but sometimes they can have hyperthyroidism although this is much less common. Hypothyroidism is hardly ever present at birth and it is more likely for people with down syndrome to develop it as they get older. This usually happens because of autoimmunity meaning when the body’s defence system attacks itself it is sometimes called hashimoto’s hypothyroidism (although there can be other causes). Trisomy pregnancies occur when the embryo has three copies of a chromosome rather than the normal two. The most common trisomy is Down’s syndrome or trisomy 21.

Technology and crimes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Media Realtions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

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Are the Beliefs and Traditions of the Catholic Church Outdated for Research Paper

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Southwest Airline comprehensive external environment analysis Research Paper

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Comprehensive Examination Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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Exploitable Weakness Terrorist Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Exploitable Weakness Terrorist - Assignment Example In a survey carried out between 1968 and 2006 by Jones & Libicki (2008) on terrorist groups that had become extinct, changing to political processes was most instrumental accounting for 43% of all endings. This was closely followed by policing strategies at 40% while those that ended due to achieving of goals and military intervention stood at 10% and 7% respectively. Exploiting the inherent weaknesses within terrorist groups is vital for putting in place strategies that are effective in bringing them down since different strategies work in different contexts (Cronin, 2006). With the emergency of many terrorist and insurgent groups globally, resources to combat them are being depleted and therefore the use of effective strategies to eliminate them is very important (Jones & Libicki, 2008). The biggest challenge presently is metamorphosis of these groups into virtual organizations that integrate into the society and operate globally. As much as metamorphosis of these groups is a challenge, their effective annihilation lies in understanding their nature and how they operate (Blomberg, Engel & Sawyer, 2010). Groups that do not convert to political activism but cling to other ideals like religious and radicalization can only be terminated through policing strategies and economic sanctions. Use of military force on such groups by governments only resu lts in exacerbation of their violence and turning civilians against governments. It is also important to demystify terrorism and avoid counter-terrorism strategies that are tantamount to creation of military warfare governments and these groups (Jones & Libicki,

Significant Health Care Event Paper Essay Example for Free

Significant Health Care Event Paper Essay Abstract This paper will attempt to discuss events that has changed or affected health care of today. Over the years health care has been influenced by numerous events throughout the United States history. Some events have contributed to the shaping and improvement of the American people’s health care needs. This influence includes society, culture, finance, religion, politics, technology, health trends, the environment, and population (Shi Singh, 2012, p. 9). These influences has contribute to the United States health care evolution that has and continues to impact and access the health care of the American people long with his or her personal values and beliefs. Significant Event’s In the recent years there has been more and more litigation over health care. In today’s society advertisements a springing up all over the place for litigations against health care professionals, health care facilities and pharmacuetal companies. These advertisements are being placed on the television, on the radio, over the internet, on billboards and public transportation. Lawyers are now specializing in significant health care conditions or diseases. This in itself has placed a huge burden on the health care profession and facilities. Some health care facilities have ended up shutting its doors because of the financial burdens of payments, malpractice premiums, and other financial burdens associated with additional procedures to avoid litigation (Satiani, 2004). Health care facilities and  professionals are spending billions of dollars on defensive medicine (Satiani, 2004). These health care dollars are needed elsewhere to improve health care practices such as implementing preventative care, research, and insuring the uninsured. Another effect on the health care is the Patient Protected and Affordable Care Act. The protection and affordable Care act was established to ensure that all Americans have access the quality and affordable health care. The Patient Protected and Affordable Act will help create a healthier health system by contain cost. President Obama has placed a limit of $900 billion to cover the cost of the Patient Protected and Affordable Care Act. This $900 billion will cover 94 percent of Americans according to The Congressional Budget Office making the Patient Protection and Affordable Act completely funded. During the next ten years and beyond the Patient Protection and Affordable act will help to curve the high cost of health care and reduce our state deficit (Responsible Reform for the Middle Class, n.d). Impact on the Historical of Health Care These two events have both a negative and positive impact on health care. The litigations can distract the ability of the American people to receive the adequate health care when needed. Financial facilities and professional are unable to give his or her consumers the consistent level of quality and be cost-effective (Shi Singh, 2012, p. 5). The Patient Protection and Affordable Act give the patient guarantee passage way to quality affordable health care, Improving the quality and efficiency of health care, prevention of chronic disease and improving public health, and improving access to innovative medical therapies (Responsible Reform for the Middle Class, n.d). Excessive litigations lead to the limitation of services that are provided by the health care facilities and professionals. Litigations increase the cost of services, it reduces accessible to facilities, and decreases trained staff. Out of fear health care providers and facilities either increases or decreases unnecessary and necessary procedures because of the high risk for litigation which takes the primary focus off the patient (Catino, 2009). The result of excessive litigation may be stagnation; the system is unable to grow because of the high costs for provision on care and the inability of everyone to receive consistent care. The positive effect of health care litigation occurs because it places a value or consequence on the effect of malpractice. Health care facilities and professional work to develop policies and practices that reduce the harm done to the patient partially because of the cost associated with neglecting to do so. Health care litigation can be a source of help for families who are affected by malpractice, especially if needed to provide further care for those affected. The problem with health care litigation lies, not with those with genuine cases, but with those who attempt to use the system to file false claims for profit. People do not realize that the cost of legal fees is offset by passing the cost to the patient. Unfortunately, most of the money gained during the litigation process does not always go toward the patient/s filing the litigation; according to Satiani (2004), an estimated 57% goes to the attorney and 43% to the patient. Personal Belief on Event’s Significance I believe that excessive litigation is a significant event in health care. It affects many aspects of care and reduces the ability of patients to access the care needed. If people continue to abuse the legal system by filing false claims we will continue to see a rise in the cost of health care. The United States health care system and the citizens must create a culture of honesty. The health care system must provide adequate, timely care to citizens, and citizens avoid false prosecution for personal gain. Conclusion Excessive litigation is an emerging trend in health care. Litigation was intended as a route for citizens to receive compensation for injuries related to malpractice, but is becoming a way of life for the legal system. Lawyers and law offices specialize in health care litigation and most Americans see or hear at least one advertisement for litigation per day. The cost of litigation on the health care system is high and unfortunately the people who pay the cost are the citizens because health care facilities, private practitioners, and insurance companies offset the cost by redirecting it on the patients. The cost of excessive litigation may be too high for citizens to pay. References Catino, M. (2009). Blame culture and defensive medicine. Cognition, Technology, Work, 11(4), 245-253. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10111-009-0130-y Catino, M. (2009). Blame Culture and Defensive Medicine. Cognition, Technology, Work, 11(4). 245-253. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10111-009-0130-y Satiani, B. (2004). The economics of health care litigation. Vascular and Endovascular Surgery.38(3).287-90. doi: 15385744 Shi, L., Singh, D.A. (2012). Delivering Health Care in America: A systems approach (5th ed.).Boston, MA: Jones Barlet. Responsible Reform for the Middle Class. (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.dpc.senate.gov/healthreformbill/healthbill04.pdf

Human Development Theory And Social Work Issues Social Work Essay

Human Development Theory And Social Work Issues Social Work Essay This study deals with the utility of human development theory in understanding practical social work issues. It takes up the case of the Murray family (provided in the appendix to this essay) and using the family as a base, attempts to apply different aspects of human development theory in a practical real life scenario. The study is divided into five specific sections. The first section briefly describes the circumstances of the Murray family. This is followed by the application of two theories of human development, (a) Erik Eriksons psychosocial development theory and Bronfenbrenners Ecological Model of Human Development, to understand child and adult development, (b) the ways in which political and social processes influence human development, (c) the role of inequalities in human development, and (d) the ways in which theories of human development underpin social work knowledge and values. The Murray family scenario is elaborated in detail in the appendix to this study and is thus being taken up briefly here. Jack (43) and Evelyn (36) Murray stay with their daughter Lora (6) and Evelyns mother Doris (71). Jack has two other sons, Seb (17) and David (15), who live separately. Jack Murray was an adopted child. He was brought up by parents who were open about his adopted status and has never shown any inclination to trace his biological parents. Jack has alcohol related problems and is prone towards domestic violence. Evelyn has been hurt and that too badly, in the recent past. Lora is doing well in school and is cared for by Doris, who is however becoming frail. She had to be placed in an emergency foster care environment during her summer holidays, even as her mother made use of a womens shelter to escape the difficulties of her home. Doris worries about being separated from her granddaughter and family if she were to go to a care home. All family members have expressed their willingness to work with a social worker. Application of Theories of Human Development Erik Eriksons theory of human development was first advanced in 1950 and has been significantly augmented in later years (Brenman-Gibson, 1997, p 329). Eriksons psychosocial theory states that life can be segregated into 8 stages from birth to death, which comprise of (a) infancy (birth to 18 months), (b) early childhood (18 months to 3 years), (c) play age (3 to 5 years), (d) school age (5 to 12 years), (e) adolescence (12 to 18 years), (f) young adulthood (18 to 35 years), (g) middle adulthood (35 to 55 or 65 years) and (h) late adulthood (55 or 65 to death) (Brenman-Gibson, 1997, p 329). Each of Eriksons 8 stages involves a crisis that is characterised by two opposing emotional forces. Infancy, for instance, involves trust v mistrust and is characterised by the care of the mother for a child with an emphasis on touch and visual contact (Christiansen Palkovitz, 1998, p 133). Successful transition through this period results in individuals learning to trust in life and to have confidence in the future, even as problems during this period can lead to feelings of worthlessness and mistrust (Christiansen Palkovitz, 1998, p 133). The school age of 6 to 12 years is similarly characterised by the opposing forces of industry and inferiority (Brenman-Gibson, 1997, p 331). Individuals are capable of learning, building and achieving numerous skills and knowledge during this period, thereby developing feelings of industry. This stage of development can also lead to the experiencing of feelings of inferiority and inadequacy with peers and result in problems of self esteem and competence (Brenman-Gibson, 1997, p 331). Eriksons philosophy rests on two important themes, namely (a) that the world enlarges as people go along, and (b) that failure is cumulative (Douvan, 1997, p 16). The first theme is indisputable. Whilst the second is debatable, it is true that children who have to perforce deal with difficult circumstances find it challenging to negotiate later stages in their lives in comparison with others (Douvan, 1997, p 16). Various studies have revealed that children who were not stroked as infants find it difficult to connect with others in their adulthood. Eriksons theory of human development has gained wide acceptance and is often used as a framework for understanding the nature of issues that lead to current behaviour and to prepare for the coming stages (Douvan, 1997, p 16). The analysis of the Murray family members reveal that Jack Murray could have suffered from lack of stroking in his infancy, especially up to his adoption at the age of 6 months. This could have resulted in entrenched feelings of worthlessness and tendencies to mistrust the world. Such feelings, along with his experience of growing up as an adopted child, may have inculcated feelings of low self esteem and be causal in his current drinking problems. Whilst Lora has grown up in the presence of affectionate parents and a loving grandmother, she is now entering the school age and the coming 6 years will enlarge her contact with the world, where parents whilst still important will not be the complete authorities they have been until death. The application of Eriksons theory of human development helps social workers in understanding the various influences that individuals experience in the course of their lives and the roles of such influences in guiding their current behaviour and their emotional and social attitudes (Raeff Benson, 2003, p 61). Bronfenbrenners ecological model was first introduced in the early 1970s. His general ecological model is defined by 2 propositions (Brendtro, 2006, p 162). The first proposition states that human development, specifically in the early phases but also throughout life, occurs through processes that progressively become more complex and involve reciprocal interaction between active and evolving humans, who are bio-psychological in their approach, and the people, objects, and symbols in their immediate environment (Brendtro, 2006, p 162). Such interaction, when it occurs over extended time periods, on a regular basis are termed as proximal processes and can be found in activities between parent and children, children and children, and solitary or group play, as well as in reading, getting to know new skills and performing complex and difficult tasks (Brendtro, 2006, p 162). The second proposition states that the power, content, form and direction of these proximal processes influence development in a varying manner on account of the characteristics of developing individuals (Brendtro, 2006, p 162). Such development is also influenced by the environment in which such processes take place and the nature of development outcomes that are under study. The mother infant interaction, (an important proximal process) emerges as an important predictor of developmental outcomes (Brendtro, 2006, p 162). Bronfenbrenners theory defines 4 different types of systems, namely the Micro system, the Meso system, the Exo system and the Macro system, which shape human development (Austrian, 2002, p 43). The Micro system comprises of the family, classrooms and schools, and other systems in the proximal environment in which people operate. The Meso system represents the interaction of two micro systems, like the connection between the home and the school of a child (Austrian, 2002, p 43). The Exo system represents the environment that is external to the experience of an individual and in which his or her involvement is indirect, but which effects development, all the same. The workplace of the parents of a child is a relevant example of an Exo system. The Macro system represents the larger cultural context (Austrian, 2002, p 43). Bronfenbrenners theory perceives the environment of a child in terms of quality and context and attempts to explain differences between the knowledge, development and skills of individuals through the structure, support and guidance of the societies in which they exist (Ahuja, 2006, p 3). He states that interaction between over lapping eco systems affect people significantly. Applying Bronfenbrenners theory to the Murray family, it can be seen that Loras family and classrooms can be called the micro systems, which directly influence her working and development (Ahuja, 2006, p 3). When these two micro systems start working together to educate Lora, such education occurs through the Meso system. The society and culture in which Lora is being raised provides the underlying influence to these systems and is termed the Macro system. The comprehension of interaction of these systems helps in understanding the way in which children develop and the factors that influence failure and success (Ahuja, 2006, p 3). Analysis of various micro and macro systems can help social workers significantly in understanding the various influences that shape the development of children. Researchers have in fact specifically found the significance of macro systems to be causal to general depression and feelings of low self esteem in individuals (Ahuja, 2006, p 3). The application of Bronfenbrenners theory in the Murray family scenario enables the development of greater understanding on the influences of different micro and Macro systems on the development of Lora in her school age and can help social workers to adopt appropriate intervention methods. Role of Political and Social Processes on Human Development Whilst there is little doubt that the development of individuals is largely shaped by their home and school environments, sociological theory also places significant stress on the influence of larger society on such development (Grusec Hastings, 2008, p 42). All individuals grow up in specific political, cultural and social environments that shape their attitudes and behaviours and influence their development in specific ways. The particular societies in which people live are home to different types of religious, cultural and social attitudes, biases and beliefs (Grusec Hastings, 2008, p 42). Such political and social processes provide individuals with the means to participate within their own society, which itself contains shared customs, norms, traditions, values and social roles (Grusec Hastings, 2008, p 42). These processes are essentially life long, starting in childhood and continuing till death. Both Erikson and Bronfenbrenners theories deal with the process of socialisatio n but through different perspectives Such socialisation occurs through the influence of the family, religion, schools and peer groups, workplaces and the larger community (Berns, 2009, p 131). These processes are also influenced by local media and political thought. Children and young adults are significantly influenced by their peers. Such influences can often be negative and result in substance abuse, premature sexual activity and the need to live up to wrong expectations (Berns, 2009, p 131). Mass media plays an immense role in influencing human development. The constant exposure of children to glamour, sexual satisfaction and violence can influence the development of children and young adults in various ways (Berns, 2009, p 131). With regard to the Murray family, it can well be understood that the personal development of all concerned individuals is likely to be influenced by different political and social processes. The continuance of domestic violence at home can lead to feelings of distress in Lora, especially when she compares her domestic environment to that of her friends, and cause her to wish to shift to a more peaceful environment. Such socialisation processes can furthermore leads to feelings of shame about her background and low self esteem, lead her to shun her family and take solace in her peers and spark of truant and delinquent behaviour. Impact of Inequalities on Human Development Social work theory and knowledge primarily aims to diminish and eliminate the impact of inequalities on the lives of individuals (Neckerman, 2004, p 189). Inequalities can arise on account of various factors like income, education, gender and ethnic status. Such inequalities essentially serve to reduce excess of affected people to various facilities and reduce the prospects of their life outcomes and their chances to lead normal and enriching lives, inequalities in income can for example deprive the children of such families from various educational and other facilities and severely diminish their life outcomes (Neckerman, 2004, p 189). Such inequalities can also generate feelings of low esteem and result in suboptimal performance in and out of school during childhood and in the workplace in adult life. Numerous studies have revealed that children with poorly educated parents receive significantly lesser educational sustenance and support at home, which in turn affects their cognitiv e development and adversely influences their performance at school (Marger, 2004, p 86). Lora the 6 year old Murray child has until now done very well in school. The disturbed domestic situation in her house, especially the gender inequality between her parents and the domestic violence faced by her mother can well result in poorer educational support at home, especially when she is moving into the learning stage and needs it the most. Gender inequality has been widely accepted to be an important factor in the unequal life chances offered to men and women of societies across the world and has resulted in unequal development and life chances of the two sexes (Marger, 2004, p 86). Influence of Human Development Theories on Social Work Knowledge and Values Theories of human development help in shaping the ideas of readers on the essence of human behaviour (Austrian, 2002, p 56). It expands the understanding of individuals of the scope, the potential and complexity of human function. Whilst scholars of human development do not agree on or endorse a single theory, many of these theories provide new perspectives for the observation and interpretation of human behaviour (Austrian, 2002, p 56). Piagets theory of cognitive development has resulted in a new appreciation for the ways in which children construct sense and meaning out of their experiences (Raeff Benson, 2003, p 81). Eriksons psychosocial theory highlights the concept of identity, even as the social learning theory of Bandura has resulted in the widespread use of modelling to simulate conditions under which children increase their learning by observing and imitating the behaviour of others (Raeff Benson, 2003, p 81). The social work profession draws extensively on theories of h uman development for understanding the behaviour of individuals, with specific regard to the causal influences of such behaviour. An understanding of such theories not only enables social workers to understand the causes for human behaviour but also helps them to plan appropriate interventions to improve the social, emotional and economic conditions of people (Raeff Benson, 2003, p 81). It helps social workers to understand the dynamic interaction that takes place among human beings and the impact of social systems upon the lives of people. A greater understanding of such theories also helps social workers in appreciating human diversity, as well as the impact of different actions in helping human beings to access opportunities and services that foster realisation of social and economic justice (Austrian, 2002, p 56). Conclusions